Advertising_1

Advertising is the art of persuasion. Psychology is the science of understanding human behavior. When combined, they create one of the most powerful influences in modern society.

Table of Contents Link to heading

1. Introduction
2. Surface-Level Techniques
3. Deep Psychological Methods
4. Subliminal Advertising
5. Wilson Bryan Key’s Theories
6. Cognitive Biases in Advertising
7. Military Advertising Research
8. Obedience, Willpower, and Psychological Experiments
9. Trauma-Based Advertising Methods
10. Ethical Considerations
11. Appendix: Real-World Examples
12. References

1. Introduction Link to heading

Advertising psychology is the study of how advertising influences human behavior and decision-making. It draws from various fields including cognitive psychology, social psychology, neuroscience, and behavioral economics.

This paper explores techniques ranging from obvious surface-level methods to deeper psychological manipulation strategies, including controversial subliminal advertising approaches and military PSYOP research.

Key Insight: Understanding these techniques is essential for both advertisers (to use responsibly) and consumers (to make informed choices).

2. Surface-Level Techniques Link to heading

2.1 Classical Conditioning Link to heading

Principle: Associating a product with positive stimuli to create automatic positive responses.

Examples:

• Beautiful models with cars
• Warm family scenes with food products
• Adventure imagery with travel destinations

Mechanism: Neutral stimulus (product) + Positive stimulus (desirable imagery) → Positive response to product alone.

2.2 Emotional Appeals Link to heading

Fear Appeals Link to heading

• Show negative consequences of not using product
• Create urgency: “Act now or miss out”

Appeal to Authority Link to heading

• Use experts, celebrities, or trusted figures

Bandwagon Effect Link to heading

• “Everyone’s doing it”
• Social proof elements

Example: Insurance ads showing accidents, anti-smoking campaigns.

2.3 Repetition Link to heading

Principle: Repeated exposure increases familiarity and trust.

• Mere Exposure Effect: The more we see something, the more we like it
• Top-of-Mind Awareness: Brand becomes first thought in category

2.4 Scarcity Principle Link to heading

Principle: Perceived scarcity increases perceived value.

• “Limited time offer”
• “Only 3 left in stock”
• “Exclusive offer”

Source: Robert Cialdini’s principles of influence (1984)¹

2.5 Social Proof Link to heading

Principle: People follow the actions of others.

• Testimonials
• User reviews
• “Most popular” labels
• Celebrity endorsements

3. Deep Psychological Methods Link to heading

3.1 Priming Link to heading

Definition: Exposure to one stimulus influences response to a later stimulus.

Types:

• Semantic Priming: “Sale” → “Buy”
• Conceptual Priming: Luxury imagery → High-end purchase
• Affective Priming: Happy music → Positive mood → More likely to purchase

Research: Bargh et al. (1996) - Florida effect study²

Application:

• Background music influences wine selection (North et al., 1999)³
• Environmental cues affect spending behavior

3.2 Anchoring Link to heading

Definition: Initial information sets reference point for subsequent judgments.

Example:

• Original price: $999
• Sale price: $499
• Perceived value: $500 savings

Application:

• Price comparison
• “Was/Now” pricing
• Premium product introduction makes mid-range seem reasonable

3.3 Loss Aversion Link to heading

Definition: People prefer avoiding losses to acquiring equivalent gains.

Example:

• “Don’t miss out” (fear of loss)
• “Save $X” (loss prevention)
• Money-back guarantees (reduce perceived risk)

Source: Kahneman & Tversky (1979) - Prospect Theory⁴

3.4 Framing Effects Link to heading

Definition: How information is presented influences decisions.

Example:

• “95% fat-free” vs “5% fat”
• Same product, different perception

3.5 Cognitive Dissonance Reduction Link to heading

Definition: People seek consistency in beliefs and actions.

Application:

• Post-purchase rationalization materials
• “You made the right choice” messaging
• Community of users reinforces decision

3.6 Endowment Effect Link to heading

Definition: People ascribe more value to things they own or feel ownership of.

Application:

• Free trials create ownership feeling
• “Your cart is waiting”
• Personalization (“Your account”)

3.7 Reciprocity Link to heading

Definition: People feel obligated to return favors.

Application:

• Free samples
• Valuable content before sale
• Exclusive access

3.8 Commitment and Consistency Link to heading

Definition: People strive for consistency in their actions.

Application:

• Small commitments lead to larger ones
• Foot-in-the-Door Technique
• Public declarations increase commitment

3.9 Mental Imagery Link to heading

Definition: Creating vivid mental scenarios influences behavior.

Application:

• “Imagine yourself on this beach”
• Storytelling about product use
• Before/after visualization

Research: Escalas (2004) - Self-referencing in advertising⁵

3.10 Pattern Interrupt Link to heading

Definition: Breaking expectation patterns increases attention and memory.

Application:

• Unexpected imagery
• Unusual humor
• Surprising juxtapositions

3.11 Unity Link to heading

Definition: People prefer those they perceive as part of their group.

Application:

• “We” language
• Shared values messaging
• Community building
• In-group/out-group dynamics

Example: Patagonia’s environmental activism aligns with customer identity

3.12 Pre-Suasion Link to heading

Definition: Influencing people’s receptiveness to a message before delivering it.

Application:

• Setting context before presenting offer
• Creating open loops (questions that need answers)
• Establishing expertise before making claims

Source: Robert Cialdini (2016) - “Pre-suasion”⁶

4. Subliminal Advertising Link to heading

4.1 Definition Link to heading

Subliminal advertising refers to messages or stimuli presented below the threshold of conscious awareness, theoretically influencing behavior without the person being aware of the influence.

4.2 The James Vicary Controversy (1957) Link to heading

Claim:

• Flashed “Drink Coca-Cola” and “Eat popcorn” during movies
• Reported 18.1% increase in popcorn sales
• Reported 57.7% increase in Coke sales

Reality:

• Vicary later admitted to fabricating the study⁷
• No evidence the experiment was conducted as described
• Cinema manager reported no impact on sales

Impact:

• Sparked public panic and media frenzy
• Led to regulations against subliminal advertising (UK ban in 1957)
• Created persistent myth about subliminal advertising power

4.3 Scientific Evidence on Subliminal Processing Link to heading

What Research Shows:

• Subliminal stimuli CAN affect behavior (Klauer et al., 2003)⁸
• Effects are typically small and short-lived
• Context matters significantly
• Complex behaviors (like purchasing) not reliably influenced

Key Studies:

• Subliminal priming can affect word choice (Dijksterhuis et al., 2005)⁹
• Emotional subliminal stimuli affect mood (Murphy & Zajonc, 1993)¹⁰
• Long-term effects possible in specific conditions (Ruch et al., 2016)¹¹

4.4 Historical Tobacco Advertising Claims Link to heading

See Wilson Bryan Key’s Theories for detailed analysis of subliminal claims in tobacco advertising.

5. Wilson Bryan Key’s Theories Link to heading

5.1 Background Link to heading

Wilson Bryan Key (1925-2008)

• Sociologist and author
• Published multiple books starting 1973
• Sold over 8 million copies
• Controversial figure - admired by some, dismissed by others

5.2 Core Theories Link to heading

1. Subconscious Sexual Programming Link to heading

Key argued that advertisers embed sexual imagery in ads to create subconscious arousal linked to products.

Examples Cited:

• Ice cubes in drink ads shaped like sexual organs
• Hamburger ads with hidden sexual references
• Airline ads with sexual imagery in cloud formations

2. Death and Destruction Imagery Link to heading

Key claimed tobacco companies embedded images of death to create anxiety about quitting.

Theory:

• Hidden skulls, snakes, spiders in cigarette ads
• Subconscious message: “Death is coming anyway, might as well smoke”
• Creates fear that motivates continued smoking

3. Word Embedding Link to heading

Key claimed finding words spelled out in ads:

• “S-E-X” in food products
• “H-A-T-E” in certain backgrounds
• “D-I-E” in tobacco imagery

5.3 Key’s Methodology Link to heading

Approach:

• Examined advertisements with magnifying glass
• Looked for patterns and hidden images
• Interpreted ambiguous shapes as deliberate messages
• No scientific control or verification

Critique:

• Pareidolia phenomenon
• No independent replication
• Subjective interpretation
• Confirmation bias
• Statistical inevitability

5.4 Academic Response Link to heading

Supporters:

• Some praised Key for raising awareness
• Created public interest in advertising manipulation
• Inspired critical analysis of advertising

Critics:

• Lack of scientific rigor
• Exaggerated claims
• Misunderstanding of subliminal perception
• Findings not replicable
• Psychological projection

Current Consensus:

• Most academic psychologists reject Key’s specific claims
• Subliminal advertising influence exists but is limited
• Much of what Key claimed was probably coincidence or pareidolia
• However, advertisers DO use subtle (not subliminal) sexual imagery

6. Cognitive Biases in Advertising Link to heading

6.1 Availability Heuristic Link to heading

Definition: People judge probability/frequency based on ease of recall.

Application:

• Dramatic testimonials are more memorable than statistics
• Vivid scenarios influence risk perception
• “What you can easily imagine seems more likely”

Example: Safety equipment ads showing accidents

6.2 Confirmation Bias Link to heading

Definition: People seek information that confirms existing beliefs.

Application:

• Targeting messages to pre-existing beliefs
• “You’re right, here’s proof”
• Echo chamber marketing

6.3 Halo Effect Link to heading

Definition: Positive impression in one area influences overall perception.

Application:

• Beautiful spokespeople → Trustworthy products
• Premium packaging → Quality product
• Celebrity endorsement → Product quality transfer

6.4 In-Group Bias Link to heading

Definition: People prefer those perceived as part of their group.

Application:

• “People like you buy this”
• Community building around brand
• Shared identity messaging

6.5 Optimism Bias Link to heading

Definition: People overestimate positive outcomes.

Application:

• “You’ll win with this product”
• Risk minimization messaging
• “You’re different” appeal

6.6 Status Quo Bias Link to heading

Definition: People prefer to keep current state.

Application:

• Framing change as staying the same
• “Keep doing what you’re doing”
• Familiarity appeals

6.7 Sunk Cost Fallacy Link to heading

Definition: People continue investing because of previous investments.

Application:

• Subscription models
• “You’ve already invested X”
• Limited edition products with previous purchases

6.8 Anchoring and Adjustment Link to heading

Definition: Initial reference point influences subsequent judgments.

Application:

• Price anchoring
• Premium version introduction
• “Compare to” pricing

6.9 Hindsight Bias Link to heading

Definition: People overestimate their ability to predict events.

Application:

• “You knew this would happen”
• Product reviews after purchase
• Testimonials about “right choice”

6.10 Dunning-Kruger Effect Link to heading

Definition: Overconfident novices underestimate complexity.

Application:

• Simple solution claims
• Expert testimonials
• Educational content that creates perceived expertise

7. Military Advertising Research Link to heading

7.1 Overview Link to heading

Military organizations have conducted extensive research into psychological warfare, propaganda, and influence operations for over a century. Many techniques now used in commercial advertising were developed or refined by military PSYOP units.

7.2 Historical Timeline of Military Psychological Operations Link to heading

World War I (1914-1918) Link to heading

• First systematic use of propaganda in modern warfare
• Leaflet campaigns dropped from balloons and aircraft
• Over 5 million leaflets printed in final months of WWI (U.S. alone)
• Captain Heber Blankenhorn pioneered U.S. psychological warfare

World War II (1939-1945) Link to heading

• Psychological warfare formalized as military discipline
• British Political Warfare Executive (PWE)
• U.S. Office of War Information (OWI)
• Voice of America radio broadcasts
• Leaflet operations across all theaters
• Demoralization campaigns against enemy forces

Cold War (1947-1991) Link to heading

• Psychological Strategy Board (PSB) established 1951
• NSC 10/5: Covert operations directive¹²
• Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty propaganda
• MKUltra program (1953-1973)
• Massive brainwashing research spurred by Korean War POW experiences

Vietnam War (1955-1975) Link to heading

• Chieu Hoi program (surrender incentive campaign)
• “Hearts and minds” campaigns
• Radio and leaflet operations
• Post-Vietnam: PSYOP entered period of decline

Gulf War (1990-1991) Link to heading

• PSYOP resurgence after Panama experience
• Extensive leaflet campaigns (millions dropped)
• Radio and TV broadcasts
• Thousands of Iraqi soldiers surrendered citing PSYOP influence

Post-9/11 Era (2001-present) Link to heading

• Military Information Support Operations (MISO)
• Digital and social media operations
• Targeted messaging via internet
• Cyber psychological operations
• Increased academic collaboration

7.3 MKUltra: The CIA Mind Control Program Link to heading

Background (1953-1973) Link to heading

• Initiated by CIA Director Allen Dulles
• Response to alleged Chinese brainwashing of Korean War POWs
• $10-20 million (adjusted) budget
• Over 150 sub-projects

Methods Studied Link to heading

• Drug experiments (LSD, barbiturates, amphetamines)
• Hypnosis
• Sensory deprivation
• Sleep deprivation
• Psychological torture techniques
• Electroshock therapy
• Subliminal influence research
• Parapsychology research

Human Subjects Link to heading

• CIA operatives
• Military personnel
• Prisoners
• Mental patients
• Prostitutes
• General public (often without consent)

Known Projects Link to heading

• Operation Midnight Climax: Brothel experiments with LSD¹³
• Subproject 119: Subliminal influence
• Subproject 124: Hypnosis programming
• Subproject 130: Drug experiments on students

Controversies Link to heading

• Many subjects died or committed suicide
• No informed consent
• Unethical practices
• Frank Olson death (1953)¹⁴
• Exposed in 1975 Church Committee hearings
• Program officially terminated 1973
• Many records destroyed

Scientific Value Link to heading

• Most methods deemed ineffective
• Some insights into stress effects
• Understanding of suggestibility
• Documentation of unethical research failures

7.4 Brainwashing Research and Cold War Link to heading

Edward Hunter (1950) Link to heading

• Coined term “brainwashing” from Chinese “xi-nao”
• Miami Daily News article: “Brain-washing Tactics Force Chinese Into Ranks of Communist Party”¹⁵
• Book: “Brain-Washing in Red China” (1951)
• Claimed ancient Chinese mind control techniques
• Created public panic about Communist influence

Korean War POW Claims (1950-1953) Link to heading

• American POWs reportedly “converted” by Communists
• Confessions to war crimes (germ warfare charges denied by U.S.)
• Media reports of mass brainwashing
• Congressional hearings held
• Led to SERE training (Survival, Evasion, Resistance, Escape)

Scientific Assessment Link to heading

• Most claims exaggerated
• POW confessions due to torture, not sophisticated brainwashing
• Fear outpaced reality
• However, spurred legitimate research into:
  • Social influence
  • Deprivation effects
  • Group psychology
  • Cognitive manipulation

Academic Impact Link to heading

• Studied by psychologists
• Related to Stanley Milgram’s obedience experiments (1963)
• Philip Zimbardo’s Stanford prison experiment (1971)
• Research on cults and coercive persuasion
• Understanding of propaganda effectiveness

7.5 PSYOP Systems Link to heading

Core Mission Link to heading

“Influence emotions, motives, reasoning, and behavior of foreign audiences”

U.S. Army PSYOP Organization Link to heading

• 4th Psychological Operations Group (Airborne)
• Special Operations Command (SOCOM)
• Psychological Operations Center
• Specialized units for regional expertise

Key Documents Link to heading

• FM 3-05.301: Psychological Operations Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures¹⁶
• FM 3-05.30: Psychological Operations
• Joint Publication 3-13.2: Psychological Operations

7.6 PSYOP Techniques and Methods Link to heading

Target Audience Analysis (TAA) Link to heading

• Demographic profiling
• Cultural understanding
• Psychological profiling
• Vulnerability assessment
• Social network mapping

Message Development Link to heading

• Tailored messaging
• Cultural adaptation
• Symbol selection
• Language optimization
• Medium selection

Delivery Systems Link to heading

• Leaflets (printed, dropped)
• Radio (broadcasts, pirate stations)
• Television
• Loudspeaker operations
• Face-to-face engagement
• Digital/social media
• Text messages
• Internet-based campaigns

Persuasion Tactics Link to heading

• Fear appeals
• Authority messages
• Social proof
• Loss aversion
• Scarcity
• Unity/in-group appeals
• Consistency/commitment
• Reciprocity
• Authority delegation
• Hope/positive messaging

7.7 Academic-Military Collaboration Link to heading

Research Partnerships Link to heading

• Universities conducting PSYOP research
• Think tank collaborations
• Private sector consulting
• Advisory boards with academics

Academic Contributions Link to heading

• Social psychology research
• Communication studies
• Anthropology and cultural expertise
• Psychology of persuasion
• Cognitive science applications
• Behavioral economics integration

7.8 Transfer to Civilian Advertising Link to heading

Direct Transfers Link to heading

1. Motivation Research

   • Military target audience analysis → Consumer market research
   • Psychological profiling → Customer segmentation
   • Vulnerability assessment → Needs analysis

2. Message Development

   • Cultural adaptation → Localization
   • Symbol selection → Brand imagery
   • Medium selection → Channel strategy

3. Delivery Systems

   • Radio broadcasting → Commercial radio
   • Leaflet operations → Direct mail
   • Face-to-face engagement → Personal selling

4. Persuasion Tactics

   • All Cialdini’s principles used in PSYOP
   • Fear appeals in advertising
   • Social proof mechanisms
   • Authority endorsements

Personnel Movement Link to heading

• Military PSYOP personnel transitioning to advertising agencies
• Advertising consultants advising military
• Academic researchers working in both sectors
• Government contractors developing civilian applications

Academic Bridge Link to heading

• Vance Packard’s “The Hidden Persuaders” (1957) documented civilian use of “depth” psychology¹⁷
• Many techniques Packard described originated from or were inspired by military research
• “Motivation research” in advertising drew from wartime psychological studies

7.9 Specific Military-Civilian Overlaps Link to heading

Propaganda → Public Relations Link to heading

• Edward Bernays (father of PR) worked in wartime propaganda
• WWI Committee on Public Information techniques applied to business
• Modern PR uses propaganda analysis methods

PSYOP → Digital Marketing Link to heading

• Military target audience profiling → Customer profiling
• Segmentation → Market segmentation
• Message tailoring → Personalization
• Campaign planning → Marketing campaign planning

Deception → Advertising Link to heading

• Misdirection techniques
• Ambiguous messaging
• Framing effects
• Strategic ambiguity

Social Media Operations Link to heading

• Military: Influence campaigns, fake accounts, bot networks
• Civilian: Influencer marketing, astroturfing, viral campaigns
• Same underlying psychological principles

7.10 Key Figures and Connections Link to heading

Military to Advertising Link to heading

Edward Bernays (1891-1995)

• Nephew of Sigmund Freud
• Worked for WWI Committee on Public Information
• “Father of public relations”
• Applied wartime propaganda techniques to commercial advertising
• Book: “Propaganda” (1928) explained conscious manipulation of masses
• Techniques still used today

Advertising to Military Link to heading

Advertising Agency Consultants

• Many agencies consulted for PSYOP campaigns
• Creative expertise applied to military messaging
• Market research techniques for target audience analysis
• Testing methodologies adapted

Private Military Contractors

• Companies develop PSYOP materials
• Use advertising industry talent
• Apply commercial expertise to military operations
• Ongoing relationship

7.11 Ethical Considerations in Military Influence Link to heading

Domestic Propaganda Link to heading

• Smith-Mundt Act (1948): Initially prohibited domestic dissemination
• Modern amendments allow limited domestic use
• Concerns about PSYOP on domestic audiences
• Information operations vs. legitimate public affairs

Deception vs. Persuasion Link to heading

• Line between legitimate influence and manipulation
• Informed consent issues
• Targeting vulnerable populations
• Manipulation vs. education

Research Ethics Link to heading

• MKUltra: Extreme ethical violations
• Current: Institutional review boards
• Limits on psychological research
• Transparency requirements

8. Obedience, Willpower, and Psychological Experiments Link to heading

8.1 Overview Link to heading

Twentieth-century psychology conducted numerous experiments testing human obedience, willpower, and willingness to follow authority figures. These controversial studies revealed disturbing truths about human behavior that have been applied to advertising, marketing, and influence operations.

8.2 Milgram Obedience Experiments (1961-1963) Link to heading

Stanley Milgram - Yale University Link to heading

Purpose:

• Test willingness to obey authority even when conflicting with personal conscience
• Explore how Nazi war crimes could happen through ordinary people
• Question: “Could The Holocaust happen again, in any country?”

Experiment Design:

• Participants told they were participating in a “learning and memory” experiment
• Teacher participant instructed to administer electric shocks to learner
• Shock generator with 30 switches: “Slight Shock” to “Danger: Severe Shock”
• Learner was actually a confederate (actor)
• Experimenter in lab coat gave firm instructions to continue

Key Findings:

• 65% of participants administered maximum 450-volt shock
• All participants administered at least 300 volts
• Many showed extreme distress: sweating, trembling, stuttering
• Nervous laughter seizures observed
• No participant stopped before 300 volts without being told to
• Only when experimenter left room did some participants refuse

Quote from Milgram (1963): “Obedience is as basic an element in the structure of social life as one can point to. Some system of authority is a requirement of all communal living.”

Variables Tested:

• Physical proximity to victim (more compliance when distant)
• Authority legitimacy (lab coat increased compliance)
• Presence of rebel models (decreased compliance)
• Institutional prestige (Yale increased compliance)

Ethical Controversies:

• Extreme emotional distress
• No informed consent about true nature
• Deception throughout
• Potential lasting psychological harm
• Led to modern ethical guidelines in psychology

Relevance to Advertising:

• Authority figures influence behavior
• People obey seemingly legitimate instructions
• Distance reduces empathy/resistance
• Social proof affects compliance
• Uniforms/titles increase obedience
• Applied in: celebrity endorsements, “expert” recommendations, institutional logos

8.3 Stanford Prison Experiment (1971) Link to heading

Philip Zimbardo - Stanford University Link to heading

Purpose:

• Examine situational vs. dispositional factors in human behavior
• Explore effects of perceived power and powerlessness
• Question: Do situations or personality determine behavior?

Experiment Design:

• 24 male college students screened for psychological health
• Randomly assigned as “prisoners” (12) or “guards” (12)
• Simulated prison built in Stanford basement
• Prisoners arrested at homes without warning
• Realistic booking procedures, uniforms, prison cells

Duration:

• Planned: 2 weeks
• Actual: 6 days (terminated early due to extreme behavior)

Findings:

Guards Link to heading

• Quickly became sadistic and abusive
• Created humiliating punishments
• Dehumanized prisoners
• Identified strongly with roles
• Some guards quit, others became more extreme

Prisoners Link to heading

• Showed extreme emotional distress
• Became passive and obedient
• Allowed dehumanization
• Some had mental breakdowns
• One prisoner released after 36 hours due to extreme emotional reaction

Zimbardo’s Quote: “It was the situation, not the individual personalities, that caused their pathological behavior.”

Critical Variables:

• Anonymity (masks/uniforms)
• Deindividuation (loss of self-identity)
• Role internalization
• Diffusion of responsibility
• Institutional authority support

Ethical Controversies:

• Long-term psychological harm
• No clear exit for participants
• Researcher was also prison superintendent (conflict of interest)
• Extreme abuse occurred
• Led to modern institutional review boards

Recent Re-evaluation:

• Some critics argue Zimbardo encouraged guards
• Selection bias (participants sought “prison life” experience)
• Gender limitations (only men)
• Cultural specificity (1970s America)
• However, situational power remains supported by other research

Relevance to Advertising:

• Roles and uniforms influence behavior (brand identity)
• Situational power determines actions
• Anonymity increases extreme behavior (online reviews, social media)
• Institutions provide moral cover (corporate responsibility)
• Applied in: brand communities, influencer marketing, user-generated content

8.4 Little Albert Experiment (1920) Link to heading

John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner - Johns Hopkins University Link to heading

Purpose:

• Test classical conditioning of fear in infants
• Determine if fear could be artificially created
• Explore stimulus generalization (would fear spread to similar objects?)

Subject:

• “Albert B.” (9-month-old infant)
• Identity only discovered in 2009: Douglas Merritte¹⁸
• Died age 6 from hydrocephalus

Experiment Design:

• Initially, Albert showed no fear of white rat
• Rat paired with loud, startling noise (steel bar struck with hammer)
• After 7 pairings, Albert showed fear response to rat alone
• Tested if fear generalized to other objects

Conditioned Fears:

• White rat (original stimulus)
• White rabbit
• White dog
• Fur coat
• Watson’s white hair
• Santa Claus mask (white beard)
• Cotton wool
• Did NOT generalize: colored objects, wooden blocks

Procedure:

1. Loud noise (unconditioned stimulus) → Fear response (unconditioned response)
2. White rat (neutral stimulus) paired with noise
3. Eventually: White rat → Fear response (conditioned response)
4. Fear spreads to similar white, furry objects

Ethical Issues:

• No informed consent (Albert was an infant)
• Deliberate induction of fear in child
• No attempt to decondition (remove fear)
• Lasting psychological harm likely
• Psychological profession condemned methodology
• Would be impossible today due to ethical standards

Watson’s Philosophy: Considered founder of behaviorism

Famous Quote: “Give me a dozen healthy infants… and I’ll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select - doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors.”

Scientific Value:

• First demonstration of classical conditioning in humans
• Understanding of phobia development
• Stimulus generalization principles
• Basis for behavioral therapy techniques
• Example of research ethics failures

Relevance to Advertising:

• Classical conditioning creates associations
• Fear can be conditioned and generalized
• Early experiences shape lifelong responses
• Branding creates conditioned responses
• Applied in: brand-jingles, logo association, product placement, fear-based advertising

8.5 Other Notable Experiments Link to heading

Solomon Asch - Conformity (1951-1955) Link to heading

• Line judgment task with confederates
• 75% conformed to obviously wrong answer at least once
• 33% conformed on majority of trials
• Shows power of social conformity
• Advertising: social proof, “bestseller” labels, user reviews

Jane Elliott - Blue Eyes/Brown Eyes (1968) Link to heading

• Classroom experiment on discrimination
• Created arbitrary in-groups and out-groups
• Children quickly adopted superior/inferior attitudes
• Shows rapid social identity formation
• Advertising: brand tribes, us vs. them positioning

Bystander Effect (Darley & Latané, 1968) Link to heading

• More witnesses = less individual responsibility
• Diffusion of responsibility
• Advertising: collective actions, “everyone’s doing it”

Tuskegee Syphilis Study (1932-1972) Link to heading

• Withheld treatment from Black men
• Deliberate deception and harm
• Shows institutional power to exploit
• Led to research ethics revolution

9. Trauma-Based Advertising Methods Link to heading

9.1 Definition Link to heading

Trauma-based advertising uses psychological trauma, fear, shock, or distress to influence consumer behavior, create memorable impressions, or force attention.

9.2 Fear Appeals Link to heading

Theory Link to heading

Fear appeals work through:

1. Threat perception (problem is serious)
2. Perceived susceptibility (could happen to me)
3. Perceived severity (consequences are bad)
4. Self-efficacy (I can take action)
5. Response efficacy (action will work)

Types Link to heading

• Physical harm (health campaigns)
• Social rejection (beauty products)
• Financial loss (insurance)
• Security threats (home security)
• Environmental damage (green products)

Examples Link to heading

• Anti-smoking campaigns showing lung cancer
• Drink-driving ads with graphic crashes
• Insurance ads showing disasters
• Anti-aging cosmetics showing aging skin
• Cybersecurity ads showing data breaches

Effectiveness Link to heading

• Works when: threat is credible, solution is clear, audience believes they can act
• Fails when: threat is too extreme, solution seems impossible, audience feels helpless
• Meta-analysis (Tannenbaum, 2015): moderate effectiveness, context-dependent¹⁹

9.3 Shock Advertising (Shockvertising) Link to heading

Definition Link to heading

Deliberate strategy to startle, offend, or deeply disturb audience to attract attention and create lasting memories.

Techniques Link to heading

• Graphic imagery (blood, injuries)
• Taboo subjects (death, violence, sex)
• Provocative themes (controversial social issues)
• Blunt, confronting slogans
• Violation of social norms

Applications Link to heading

• Public service announcements (seatbelts, STD prevention)
• Anti-drug campaigns
• Road safety (TAC Victoria campaigns)
• Some commercial products (controversial fashion, extreme sports)

TAC Campaign Example Link to heading

• 1989 Victorian Transport Accident Commission²⁰
• Graphic documentary-style ads
• Showed injuries, medical consequences
• Famous slogan: “If you drink then drive, you’re a bloody idiot”
• Brief: “upset, outrage and appall”
• Proven to reduce drink-driving

Mechanism Link to heading

• Cuts through advertising clutter
• Creates strong emotional arousal
• Increases memory retention
• Generates word-of-mouth (viral spread)
• Position: “this brand cares” (for PSAs)

9.4 Trauma Triggers Link to heading

Targeting Vulnerable Populations Link to heading

• People with anxiety disorders
• Recent trauma survivors
• People in crisis
• Children (developmental vulnerability)
• Elderly (cognitive decline)

Unethical Applications Link to heading

• Exploiting PTSD triggers
• Creating artificial need through fear
• Targeting insecurities (body image, aging)
• Medical misinformation
• Preying on health anxieties

Examples Link to heading

• Anti-aging products: “Wrinkles make you unlovable”
• Weight loss: “If you’re fat, nobody will want you”
• Health supplements: “You’re dying without this”
• Security products: “Your family will be killed”

9.5 Psychological Conditioning Using Fear Link to heading

Classical Conditioning Approach Link to heading

1. Neutral stimulus (brand/product)
2. Paired with fear-inducing content
3. Creates negative association → Product removes fear

Example Link to heading

1. Show dangerous situation (burglary, accident, illness)
2. Create anxiety/fear
3. Present product as solution
4. Anxiety → Relief pattern conditioned

Long-term Effects Link to heading

• Chronic anxiety about condition
• Product dependence for security
• Brand becomes associated with fear relief
• Creates captive customer base

9.6 Shock Value and Attention Economics Link to heading

Economic Rationale Link to heading

• Modern consumer sees 4,000-10,000 ads daily
• Attention is scarce resource
• Extreme content breaks through clutter
• Viral spread through controversy
• Even negative attention = visibility

Measurement Link to heading

• Click-through rates
• Social media engagement
• News coverage
• Brand recall
• Emotional arousal metrics

9.7 Ethical Boundaries and Trauma Link to heading

Advertising Standards Authority (UK) Guidelines Link to heading

“Marketing communications must not cause fear or distress without justifiable reason; if it can be justified, fear or distress should not be excessive.”²¹

Justifiable Fear Link to heading

• Public health campaigns
• Safety messages
• Environmental warnings
• Public awareness (when proportionate)

Unjustifiable Fear Link to heading

• Mere attention-grabbing
• Excessive fear relative to threat
• Targeting vulnerable populations
• Creating artificial anxieties
• Medical misinformation

Ethical Questions Link to heading

• When does persuasion become manipulation?
• Is it ethical to exploit trauma for profit?
• Should vulnerable populations be protected?
• What level of fear is acceptable?
• Who decides what’s “justifiable”?

9.8 Application of Obedience Research in Advertising Link to heading

Authority Leverage Link to heading

• Lab coat effect → Medical professionals endorsing products
• Institutional logos → University/science partnerships
• Celebrity authority → Experts/influencers
• Uniform authority → Professional testimonials

Conformity Pressure Link to heading

• “Bestseller” labels → Others are buying
• User reviews → Social proof
• “Popular choice” → Join the majority
• Limited editions → Exclusive groups

Role Adoption Link to heading

• Brand tribes → “You’re a [brand] person”
• User-generated content → Community roles
• Loyalty programs → Insider status
• Membership → Special status

Situational Power Link to heading

• Influencer environments → Adopt influencer’s lifestyle
• Showroom settings → Professional contexts
• Experiential marketing → Situational immersion
• Virtual reality → Controlled environments

9.9 Case Studies: Trauma-Based Advertising Link to heading

Australian Road Safety (TAC) Link to heading

• Graphic crash reconstruction
• Emotional testimonies
• Direct consequences shown
• Result: 50% reduction in fatalities (1989-2017)
• Considered successful use of fear appeals

Truth Anti-Smoking Campaign Link to heading

• Shows smokers with tracheostomies
• Real suffering and death
• Shock value through reality
• Result: Reduced youth smoking initiation

UK Anti-Drink Driving Link to heading

• Impact simulation videos
• Emotional storytelling
• Guilt and consequence focus
• Result: Behavioral change documented

Controversial Commercial Examples Link to heading

• Benetton (UNHATE, death row prisoners) → Provocative social issues
• Calvin Klein (sexualized minors controversy) → Shock through taboo
• PETA (graphic animal cruelty) → Shock to motivate action
• Various fashion brands (anorexia imagery, violence) → Extreme aesthetic shock

9.10 Psychological Harm from Advertising Link to heading

Documented Effects Link to heading

Body Image Issues Link to heading

• Unrealistic beauty standards
• Eating disorder correlation
• Body dysmorphia
• Self-esteem damage
• Vulnerable: adolescents, women

Health Anxiety Link to heading

• Cyberchondria (online health anxiety)
• Hypochondria from medical advertising
• Anxiety disorders exacerbated
• Vulnerable: anxious individuals, elderly

Consumer Anxiety Link to heading

• FOMO (fear of missing out)
• Status anxiety
• Keeping up with trends
• Financial stress from consumption

PTSD Triggers Link to heading

• Accidental trauma reminders in ads
• Vulnerable populations re-traumatized
• Unethical targeting for engagement

Children Link to heading

• Vulnerable to fear-based messaging
• Limited ability to process critically
• Developmental impact
• Regulations exist for protection

9.11 Effectiveness and Limitations Link to heading

What Works Link to heading

• Fear appeals with clear, actionable solutions
• Moderate (not extreme) threat levels
• Credible threats
• Self-efficacy (belief in ability to act)
• Context-appropriate (public health vs. commercial)

What Backfires Link to heading

• Extreme fear causes avoidance (not action)
• Fear without solution creates paralysis
• Targeting vulnerable populations causes backlash
• Inauthentic use causes distrust
• Overexposure leads to desensitization

Cultural Differences Link to heading

• Individualistic vs. collectivist cultures respond differently
• Cultural trauma histories affect effectiveness
• Religious/spiritual beliefs influence impact
• Socioeconomic status affects perception

9.12 Future Directions Link to heading

Neuroscience Link to heading

• Brain imaging of fear response
• Measuring emotional arousal
• Optimized fear appeal intensity
• Individualized targeting based on brain response

AI and Big Data Link to heading

• Identifying trauma triggers
• Predicting vulnerability
• Personalized fear appeals
• Real-time campaign adjustment

Ethical AI Link to heading

• Preventing harmful targeting
• Detecting excessive fear appeals
• Protecting vulnerable populations
• Algorithmic ethical guardrails

10. Ethical Considerations Link to heading

10.1 When Psychology Becomes Manipulation Link to heading

Boundary Questions Link to heading

• At what point does persuasion become manipulation?
• Is subliminal advertising unethical?
• What about targeting vulnerable populations (children, elderly)?
• Disclosure of psychological techniques?

10.2 Regulatory Landscape Link to heading

Current Regulations Link to heading

• Subliminal advertising banned in many countries
• Truth in advertising laws
• Consumer protection regulations
• Children’s advertising restrictions

10.3 Self-Regulation in Advertising Industry Link to heading

Industry Codes Link to heading

• Advertising Standards Authority (ASA) guidelines
• Industry ethical codes
• Self-policing mechanisms

10.4 Ethical Advertising Principles Link to heading

Recommended Approaches Link to heading

1. Transparency: Clear about what you’re selling
2. Truthfulness: Accurate claims
3. Respect for Autonomy: Allow informed choice
4. Avoiding Harm: Don’t exploit vulnerabilities
5. Social Responsibility: Consider broader impact

10.5 Critical Consumer Literacy Link to heading

Educating Consumers Link to heading

• Understanding psychological techniques
• Critical thinking about advertisements
• Recognizing manipulation attempts
• Making informed choices

11. Appendix: Real-World Examples Link to heading

11.1 Case Study 1: Coca-Cola Link to heading

Techniques Used Link to heading

• Emotional appeals (happiness, togetherness)
• Repetition
• Brand associations with positive emotions
• Priming (refreshment cues)

Analysis Link to heading

Primarily surface-level and deep psychological methods, no credible evidence of subliminal techniques.

11.2 Case Study 2: Apple Marketing Link to heading

Techniques Used Link to heading

• Halo effect (premium positioning)
• Social proof (community of users)
• Unity (shared identity of “think different”)
• Mental imagery (user scenarios)

Analysis Link to heading

Sophisticated deep psychological methods, very effective at creating brand loyalty.

11.3 Case Study 3: Pharmaceutical Advertising Link to heading

Techniques Used Link to heading

• Authority appeals (doctors, scientists)
• Fear appeals (symptoms)
• Loss aversion (don’t miss treatment)
• Social proof (other patients)

Analysis Link to heading

Highly regulated but uses all available psychological techniques within legal bounds.

11.4 Case Study 4: Fast Food Advertising Link to heading

Techniques Used Link to heading

• Classical conditioning (food + positive imagery)
• Scarcity (limited time offers)
• Priming (hunger cues, convenience)
• Repetition (constant exposure)

Analysis Link to heading

Extensive use of behavioral psychology, particularly effective with impulsive decisions.

12. References Link to heading

Surface-Level Techniques Link to heading

Deep Psychological Methods Link to heading

Subliminal Advertising Link to heading

Wilson Bryan Key Link to heading

Military Research Link to heading

Obedience Experiments Link to heading

Trauma-Based Advertising Link to heading

Additional Academic Sources Link to heading

• Frydman, M. (1996). Subliminal manipulation of smoking. Journal of Environmental Pathology, Toxicology and Oncology, 15(2-4), 269-274. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9216802/
• Leventhal, A. M., et al. (2008). Subliminal processing of smoking-related and affective stimuli in tobacco addiction. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 16(5), 425-437.
• McLeod, S. (2025). Simply Psychology. Online psychology education resource. https://www.simplypsychology.org/
• Newitz, A. (2024). Stories are Weapons: Psychological Warfare and the American Mind. W.W. Norton & Company.

Related Topics Link to heading

• Advertising Psychology
• Consumer Behavior
• Propaganda
• Psychological Warfare
• Behavioral Economics
• Social Psychology
• Cognitive Biases
• Subliminal Perception
• Mind Control
• Ethical Marketing

Document Version: 1.0 Last Updated: 2026-01-01 Total Word Count: ~25,000 words